*

Murray Cod is the largest solely freshwater fish in Australia. It occurs throughout most of the Murray–Darling system. Commercial fishing for this species is currently prohibited in the Murray–Darling Basin but recreational fishing is popular and widespread. Murray Cod is listed as ‘Vulnerable’ under the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (Commonwealth) but a recent International Union for the Conservation of Nature Red List assessment found the species to be no longer threatened and listed it as a species of least concern [Gilligan et al. 2019]. Stock status is depleted in the ACT, NSW and SA, undefined in NSW and QLD, and recovering in VIC. A national recovery plan has been developed for this species [National Murray Cod Recovery Team 2010a 2010b] delivered through a cross-jurisdictional Murray Cod Fishery Management Group.

Murray Cod is the largest solely freshwater fish in Australia, occurring throughout most of the Murray–Darling system, except for the upper reaches of some tributaries in Victoria, the Australian Capital Territory, Queensland and southern New South Wales. Throughout most of its distribution in the Murray–Darling Basin there is one large genetically panmictic biological stock [Rourke et al. 2011]. However, genetically distinct populations have been identified in the more isolated Lachlan, Macquarie and Gwydir catchments [Rourke et al. 2011]. This separation appears to be the result of restricted gene flow due to the isolated nature of these catchments [Rourke et al. 2011]. There are differences in available information, environmental conditions and management arrangements and objectives across the species’ distribution in various jurisdictions. Further, genetic homogeneity could be a result of low levels of genetic interchange between functionally discrete stocks, and thus it may not be the best approach for stock discrimination to inform management. 

Here, assessment of stock status is presented at the jurisdictional level—Australian Capital Territory, Queensland, New South Wales, South Australia and Victoria.

Victoria

In Victoria, during the 19th century, Murray Cod were considered abundant in the Loddon, Campaspe and Goulburn Rivers [Wilson 1857], yet by the middle of the 20th century, populations in these rivers had declined [Cadwallader 1977]. Commercial catches were highest between 1954–55 and 1960–61, at approximately 10–15 t per year, but reduced to about 1.5 t per year on average over the next 10 years and were negligible thereafter—a trend attributed to environmental degradation, river modification works, agricultural, urban, and industrial pollution, and overfishing [Ingram and De Silva 2004]. Prohibition of commercial netting post-1999, recreational bag and size limits, and prohibition of set lines, together with considerable stocking of hatchery-reared fish have contributed to some recovery in some rivers. However, no consistent estimates of long-term trends in harvest by anglers or population abundance have been recorded. Currently, there is no information on fishing pressure, biomass and size composition for Murray Cod in impoundments, where populations are largely sustained by stocking rather than natural recruitment. Consequently, this assessment focuses on Murray Cod in Victorian rivers only.

State-wide assessment of Murray Cod abundance was based on catch per unit effort (CPUE) from electrofishing surveys in seven indicator rivers (Broken Creek, Broken River, Campaspe River, Goulburn River, Gunbower Creek, Loddon River and Ovens River). Together these rivers represent approximately 44% of the habitat known to have been historically occupied by Murray Cod in Victoria [Murray–Darling Basin Authority 2021]. To provide a benchmark for assessing changes in Murray Cod biomass over recent years (2015 to present), CPUE from these surveys was compared with a reference-level CPUE, calculated as the average CPUE over the period 1990 to 2015. 

Although electrofishing surveys have been infrequent and irregular, since about 2014–2015 CPUE appears to have increased relative to the reference period in most indicator rivers (except the Loddon River) [Bell et al. 2023]. Prior to this, CPUE trends showed abundance was declining in the Broken and Kiewa Rivers [Davies et al. 2012]. During the period 2014 to 2022, CPUE in the Broken Creek, Broken River, Campaspe River, Goulburn River, Gunbower Creek and Ovens River has shown two to five-fold increases and has been above the reference level [Bell et al. 2023]. However, CPUE in the Loddon River has remained low for most of the last decade [Bell et al. 2023]. 

Murray Cod have been stocked into Victorian rivers since 1979 to enhance populations. During the 1990s and 2000s, 0.06–0.4 million were stocked annually but since then the number of fish stocked has increased substantially and, in the last six years, (2017–22) 1.16–3.65 million were stocked annually into the state’s water bodies, including six of the seven indicator rivers (excluding the Ovens River). Murray Cod less than one year old were present in most rivers in recent years indicating either natural recruitment (Ovens River) or presence of stocked hatchery-reared fish [Bell et al. 2023]. Anecdotal reports from anglers also indicate increased recreational catches from waters where stocking has occurred. However, the extent of the contribution made by stocked fish to population trends across the river systems described above is variable and uncertain. For example, although the Broken Creek and River and Goulburn River are stocked annually, otolith microchemistry analyses or presence/absence of hatchery calcein markers showed that most Murray Cod sampled from these rivers were naturally spawned [Tonkin et al. 2019]. These results indicate that CPUE increases in the Broken Creek, Broken River and Goulburn River, are primarily due to natural recruitment rather than stocking. In the Ovens River, the CPUE increase is due solely to natural recruitment as no stocking has occurred in that waterway. 

The last State-wide recreational catch survey, conducted two decades ago in 2000–01, estimated that 11,943 Murray Cod were harvested, equating to around 27.4 t [Henry and Lyle 2003]. Subsequently, between 2006 and 2008, creel surveys conducted on selected river reaches including the Goulburn, Ovens, Loddon and Murray Rivers [Fulton 2011] estimated total catch at more than 98,000 Murray Cod, of which just over 6,500 were retained. There is no more recent information on recreational harvest or effort at state level. Numerous measures are implemented to limit fishing mortality. Murray Cod are protected in Victorian rivers by a fishing slot limit, with a minimum size limit of 55 cm and a maximum size limit of 75 cm between which fish may be legally retained. A closed season applies from 1 September to 30 November inclusive [Victorian Fisheries Authority 2021]. In recent years most Murray Cod were below the minimum legal size limit of the fishing slot [Bell et al. 2023].

Mature fish (> 55 cm) were present in six of the seven indicator rivers (except the Loddon River), but in low proportions in most rivers.  Between 2015 and 2022, the proportion of fish that were mature was > 5% in six rivers, > 10% in most years in three rivers and exceeded 20% in some years in three rivers.

The increasing CPUE trends in six of seven indicator rivers suggest that recovery of Murray Cod abundance and biomass has been occurring since at least 2014. Natural recruitment, substantial stocking of hatchery-reared Murray Cod into Victorian waters during the past two decades, and current fishing regulations appear to have facilitated some degree of stock recovery in most rivers. However, there are still low numbers of large mature fish in most rivers. 

The above evidence indicates that the biomass of this stock is likely to be depleted and that recruitment is likely to be impaired. However, over the past five years, electrofishing CPUE and studies of the relative contributions made by stocked fish or natural recruitment to the populations indicate that the stock is recovering. The above evidence also indicates that the current level of fishing mortality should allow the stock to continue to recover from its recruitment impaired state.

On the basis of the evidence provided above, Murray Cod in Victoria is classified as a recovering stock.

Murray Cod biology: Information on Murray Cod longevity and size and age at maturity is provided in the Biology Table below [Whitley 1955; Pollard 1966; Lake 1967; Rowland 1985; Anderson et al. 1992; Gooley et al. 1995; Rowland 1998a; King et al. 2009; Koehn et al. 2020; Butler et al. unpublished data]. 

Additional summary points on Murray Cod biology and ecology are: 

• Murray Cod are a demersal species [Koehn 2009a] that prefer the main channel of rivers, flowing anabranches and creeks [Humphries et al. 1999; King 2004; Koehn 2009b; Leigh and Zampatti 2013], within which both juveniles and adults have an affinity for hydraulically diverse lotic (i.e. flowing) habitats with abundant physical habitat cover, particularly large woody debris [Boys and Thomas 2006; Jones and Stuart 2007; Koehn 2009b; Koehn and Nicol 2013]. Habitat alteration, such as removal of snags from the main channel and anabranches, and loss of fast-flowing water habitats due to river regulation, water extraction or drought will decrease habitat availability and likely have negative impacts on Murray Cod populations.

• Murray Cod spawn in spring at water temperatures > 15°C, with adhesive eggs laid in a nest that is guarded until the larvae leave and drift in the water column [Rowland 1998b; Humphries 2005; Koehn and Harrington 2005, 2006; Koehn et al. 2020].  

• Enhanced recruitment of Murray Cod in lowland areas has been linked to increased river flow or flooding [King et al. 2009; Ye and Zampatti 2007]. The exact mechanism driving recruitment is unknown, but it is likely to be linked to flowing water environments [Zampatti et al. 2014] and potentially an increase in food resources for larvae and juveniles following high river flows and floodplain inundation [King et al. 2009].

• In lowland rivers, adult Murray Cod can undertake small- to large-scale movements (up to 120 km) from their home sites within the main river channel and anabranches, and between these habitats [Koehn et al. 2009; Leigh and Zampatti 2013; Koehn and Nicol 2016]. Lateral and longitudinal disconnection (for example, by structures or reduced flow) will alter the movement patterns of the species [Carpenter-Bundoo et al. 2020]. In upland rivers, movements are likely to be limited by natural barriers such as gorges and waterfalls.

• Cold-water pollution, due to low-level releases from dams, can limit spawning and egg and larval survival [Todd et al. 2005; Sherman et al. 2007], affect juvenile growth rates [Whiterod et al. 2018], adult movement behaviour and survival of juvenile fish [Tonkin et al. 2020], and has been deemed responsible for the loss of Murray Cod populations downstream of a number of major impoundments [Lugg and Copeland 2014].

• Anoxic blackwater events in lowland environments that may occur as a result of flooding after prolonged periods of low flow, and other poor water quality events such as the 2019 fish kills in the lower Darling River, can result in considerable mortality of Murray Cod [Koehn 2005; King et al. 2012; Leigh and Zampatti 2013; Thiem et al. 2017; Vertessy et al. 2019].

Commercial (Management Methods). Murray Cod captured by the Lakes and Coorong Fishery are currently protected under South Australian fishing regulations.

Indigenous (Management Methods). Indigenous fishers who can satisfy the requirements of the Native Title Act 1993 (Cth) in relation to their connection to the specific area or waters may take sufficient Murray Cod to satisfy their customary, non-commercial domestic needs in South Australia and Queensland. Indigenous fishers who do not satisfy these requirements are subject to the standard recreational bag limits, size limits and closures.

Queensland – Indigenous (Management Methods). For more information see: https://www.daf.qld.gov.au/business-priorities/fisheries/traditional-fishing

Victoria – Indigenous Fishing. A person who identifies as Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander is exempt from the need to obtain a Victorian recreational fishing licence, provided they comply with all other rules that apply to recreational fishers, including rules on equipment, catch limits, size limits and restricted areas. Traditional (non-commercial) fishing activities that are carried out by members of a traditional owner group entity under an agreement pursuant to Victoria’s Traditional Owner Settlement Act 2010 are also exempt from the need to hold a recreational fishing licence, subject to any conditions outlined in the agreement. Native title holders are also exempt from the need to obtain a recreational fishing licence under the provisions of the Commonwealth’s Native Title Act 1993.

South Australia and Australian Capital Territory - (Management Methods). Catch and release zones exist for Murray Cod in these jurisdictions. Murray Cod can be targeted and caught but not possessed or retained in these zones. Seasonal closures may also apply.

Commercial catch of Murray Cod–no commercial fishery 

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