*

Snapper is widely distributed in Australia and managed as twelve stocks. Six are sustainable, one is recovering, four are depleted and one is undefined.

Snapper has a wide distribution in Australia, ranging from waters off the north coast of Western Australia, around the south of the continent, and up to northern Queensland around Hinchinbrook Island [Kailola et al. 1993]. Within this broad distribution, the biological stock structure is complex and there are considerable differences in the spatial scales over which populations are divisible into separate stocks.

Recent genetic studies of Snapper using microsatellite markers have led to a refined understanding of stock structure for the east Australian coast that have indicated greater complexity than previously thought. Snapper from Queensland to south coast New South Wales show little genetic differentiation and are considered to represent a single genetic stock [Morgan et al. 2019], consistent with earlier studies using allozymes [Sumpton et al. 2008]. This stock is referred to as the East Coast stock, with the Queensland and New South Wales components managed and assessed at the jurisdictional level. Snapper within the East Coast biological stock is thought to be largely resident; however, some individuals do move long distances [Sumpton et al. 2003; Harasti et al. 2015; Stewart et al. 2019]. The majority of commercial landings in New South Wales are thought to consist of fish that recruit from local estuaries [Gillanders 2002]. In addition to the limited mixing within the stock, key biological traits of Snapper (such as the size and age at maturity) vary with latitude [Stewart et al. 2010]. It is therefore appropriate to manage and report on stock status of the East Coast biological stock of Snapper at the jurisdictional level as Queensland and New South Wales jurisdictional stocks.

Snapper from eastern Victoria are now recognised as genetically differentiated from those that inhabit the southern coast of New South Wales, i.e. north of Eden [Morgan et al. 2019]. As such, Snapper from Wilsons Promontory to southern New South Wales are considered a separate biological stock that is referred to as the Eastern Victorian stock. Although there is low genetic variation between the eastern and western sides of Wilsons Promontory [Meggs and Austin 2003; Morgan et al. unpublished], separation between these populations has been supported by tagging and otolith chemistry studies [Coutin et al. 2003; Hamer et al. 2011]. Snapper to the west of Wilsons Promontory, including the important fisheries of Port Phillip Bay and Western Port, constitute the Western Victorian biological stock. This stock extends westward from Wilsons Promontory to near the mouth of the Murray River in south-eastern South Australia [Sanders 1974; Donnellan and McGlennon 1996; Hamer et al. 2011; Fowler et al. 2017].

The South Australian fishery was originally divided into six management units, due to uncertainty about movement among different regional populations [Fowler et al. 2013]. However, a recent study evaluated the stock structure and adult movement among regional populations within South Australia and western Victoria [Fowler 2016; Fowler et al. 2017], based on inter-regional comparisons of otolith chemistry, otolith increment widths, and population characteristics. The study differentiated three stocks. The Western Victorian stock extends westward into south-eastern South Australia, and depends on recruitment into, and subsequent emigration from, Port Phillip Bay in Victoria. As such, this is a cross-jurisdictional stock, although the components from the two states are still managed independently. The two other stocks are wholly located within South Australia. The Spencer Gulf/West Coast stock depends on recruitment into Northern Spencer Gulf from where some fish eventually emigrate to replenish the populations of Southern Spencer Gulf and the west coast of Eyre Peninsula. The third is the Gulf St. Vincent stock, which relies on recruitment into Northern Gulf St. Vincent, and subsequent emigration to Southern Gulf St. Vincent and Investigator Strait [Fowler 2016; Fowler et al. 2017].

In Western Australia, Snapper is currently divided into six management units. At the smaller geographic scale inside Shark Bay within the Gascoyne bioregion, genetically related but biologically separate stocks have been identified in the Eastern Gulf, Denham Sound and Freycinet Estuary based on otolith microchemistry, tagging and egg/larval dispersal modelling [Johnson et al. 1986; Edmonds et al. 1999; Bastow et al. 2002; Moran et al. 2003; Nahas et al. 2003; Norriss et al. 2012; Gardner et al. 2017]. At the larger scale, Snapper in oceanic waters off the Western Australian coast that comprise the three remaining management units, i.e., Shark Bay Oceanic, West Coast and South Coast, show low levels of genetic differentiation over hundreds of kilometres consistent with gene flow that is primarily limited by geographic distance [Gardner and Chaplin 2011; Gardner et al. 2017; Bertram et al. 2022]. Recent analyses of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs, neutral loci) identified genetic discontinuities between three broad-scale genetic stocks (i.e., upper west coast, lower west coast and south coast) [Bertram et al. 2022], however, differences in biological and fishery characteristics within these boundaries supports the need for assessments to be undertaken at finer spatial scales [Jackson et al. 2023]. Otolith microchemistry has indicated residency of adult Snapper in the Gascoyne, West and South Coast bioregions, but with recruitment likely coming from multiple nursery areas [Wakefield et al. 2011; Fairclough et al. 2013; Jackson et al. 2023]. Tagging studies support these findings with most adults tagged at the key spawning locations in the Gascoyne and West Coast bioregions recaptured within 100 km, as well as philopatry of adults that aggregate to spawn in embayments on the west coast [Moran et al. 2003; Wakefield et al. 2011; Crisafulli et al. 2019].

Here, assessment of stock status for Snapper is presented at the biological stock level—Shark Bay inshore Eastern Gulf, Shark Bay inshore Denham Sound, Shark Bay inshore Freycinet Estuary (Western Australia); Eastern Victoria (Victoria), Western Victoria (Victoria and South Australia), Gulf St Vincent, Spencer Gulf/West Coast (South Australia); the management unit level—South Coast, Shark Bay Oceanic and West Coast (Western Australia); and the jurisdictional level–Queensland and New South Wales.

Gulf St. Vincent

The Gulf St Vincent (GSV) stock of Snapper includes two regional populations: Northern Gulf St Vincent (NGSV) and Southern Gulf St Vincent (SGSV). NGSV has recently supported the bulk of the biomass and is the primary nursery area for the stock [Fowler et al. 2016]. The population dynamics are driven by inter-annual variation in recruitment of the 0+ year class and subsequent southward migration from NGSV to SGSV.

The most recent assessment of the GSV stock was completed in October 2022 [Drew et al. 2022] and considered data up to January 2022. This assessment followed from the total closure of this fishery that was implemented on 1 November 2019. Stock status deteriorated from 2015 to 2020, despite the implementation of numerous fishery management changes between 2012 and 2016 to reduce the commercial catch and increase reproductive output to provide the opportunity for improved recruitment [Fowler et al. 2016, Fowler et al. 2019; Fowler et al. 2020]. 

For the recent stock assessment, stock status was determined using a weight-of-evidence approach that considered both fishery-dependent and fishery-independent information [Drew et al. 2022]. The fishery-dependent data were: commercial fishery statistics to November 2019 (i.e., total catch, effort and CPUE); recreational fishery data; and measures of recruitment developed from annual length and age structures. The fishery-independent data were regional estimates of spawning biomass in 2013, 2018, 2020 and 2022 determined using the daily egg production method (DEPM). All data sets were also integrated in a stock assessment model (SnapEst) that produced a time-series of annual estimates of output parameters that included: fishable biomass; recruitment; harvest fraction; and egg production. 

Throughout the mid-2000s, the GSV stock produced the highest catches ever recorded in South Australia [Fowler et al. 2020]. Whilst catches were low between 1984 and 2006, they increased rapidly from 2006 to 2010, culminating in the record catch of 454 t in the latter year. Catches remained high until 2015. This period of high catches related, to some extent, to the transition from a largely handline to a longline fishery, with the adoption of new monofilament longline equipment that increased fishing efficiency. Targeted longline effort and CPUE both increased rapidly between 2008 and 2010 to record levels and remained relatively high to 2015. Nevertheless, from 2015 to 2019, there were substantial declines in total catch, targeted longline catch, effort, CPUE, and the number of longline fishers targeting Snapper. These trends in the fishery statistics were consistent with an increase in biomass that was maintained until around 2015, followed by a rapid decline. Fishery-independent estimates of spawning biomass from applications of the DEPM in 2014, 2018, 2020, and 2022 support the decline in biomass from 2,780 t in 2014 to 404 t in 2022, despite an expansion of survey area in 2020 and 2022 [Drew et al. 2022].

Outputs from SnapEst show fishable biomass increased from a low level in the 1990s to a record level in 2011, before declining by 92% between 2011 and 2020. The estimate of fishable biomass in 2020 was 343 t, the lowest estimated value, which increased marginally to 368 t in 2022. The increasing trend in biomass through the 2000s reflected recruitment of numerous strong year classes (i.e., 1991, 1997, 1999, 2001, 2004, 2007 and 2009) to the population. The subsequent reduction in biomass related to relatively poor recruitment from 2009 to 2019, when catches remained high and harvest fractions increased. Model-estimated egg production in 2022 was 2% of that expected for an unfished stock. Average recruitment over the last three years was 90% lower than the historical level. 

In 2020, the status of the GSV stock was changed from ‘depleting’ to ‘depleted’ [Fowler et al. 2020]. This change reflected the decline in spawning biomass estimated from DEPM surveys that had occurred since 2014, poor recruitment since 2009, and persistent high targeted fishery catch and effort. Multiple lines of evidence demonstrate that management has not yet resulted in measurable improvements, and the stock has continued to persist at low levels. These are: (i) poor recruitment between 2010 and 2019, despite the prominence of the 2014-year class in annual age structures from 2018 to 2022; (ii) continued low estimates of spawning biomass using the DEPM; and (iii) continued low estimates of fishable biomass and egg production from the stock assessment model [Drew et al. 2022].

The above evidence indicates that the biomass of this stock is likely to be depleted and that recruitment is likely to be impaired. Furthermore, current fishing mortality is constrained by management to a level that should allow the stock to recover from its recruitment impaired state; however, measurable improvements are yet to be detected.

On the basis of the evidence provided above, the Gulf St Vincent biological stock is classified as a depleted stock.

Spencer Gulf/West Coast

The Spencer Gulf/West Coast (SG/WC) stock encompasses the regional populations of Northern Spencer Gulf (NSG), Southern Spencer Gulf (SSG) and the west coast of Eyre Peninsula (WC) [Fowler et al. 2017]. NSG is the primary nursery area for the whole stock. The population dynamics are strongly driven by inter-annual variation in recruitment of the 0+ year class and subsequent emigration from NSG to adjacent regional populations [Fowler et al. 2017]. In particular, occasional strong year classes are evident in age compositions which contribute to population abundance, biomass and fishery productivity for many years [Fowler et al. 2016]. 

The most recent assessment of the SG/WC stock was completed in October2022 and considered data up to January 2022 [Drewet al. 2022]. This assessment followed from the total closure of this fishery that was implemented on 1 November 2019. Stock status deteriorated from 2012 to 2019, despite the implementation of significant management changes between 2012 and 2016 to reduce the commercial catch and increase reproductive output to provide the opportunity for improved recruitment [Fowler et al. 2016]. 

For the recent stock assessment, stock status was determined using a weight-of-evidence approach that considered both fishery-dependent and fishery-independent information [Drew et al. 2022]. The fishery-dependent data were: commercial fishery statistics to November 2019 (i.e., total catch, effort and CPUE); recreational fishery data; and measures of recruitment developed from annual length and age structures. The fishery-independent data were regional estimates of spawning biomass in 2013, 2018, 2019 and 2021 determined using the daily egg production method (DEPM). All data sets were also integrated in a stock assessment model (SnapEst), that produced time-series of annual estimates of output parameters that included: fishable biomass; recruitment; harvest fraction; and egg production. 

Across the 36-year time-series of commercial fishery statistics from 1984 to 2019, estimates of total catch, effort and CPUE for the SG/WC stock have varied cyclically [Drew et al. 2022]. Nevertheless, from the mid-2000s, all commercial fishery statistics showed declining trends, with particularly significant drops since 2012. By 2019, most of these fishery performance indicators had declined to their historically lowest levels. Such trends are consistent with persistent declines in biomass. The results of the four applications of the DEPM supported the inference from the commercial fishery statistics that the spawning biomass of Snapper in NSG had further declined from a low level in 2013. The estimate in 2018 of 192 t was 23% lower than the estimate for 2013. The DEPM estimate for 2021 of 108 t represents further stock reduction despite the expansion in survey area considered in 2019 and 2021. 

Recent age compositions for both NSG and SSG showed the lack of any strong recruitment year classes since 1999, suggesting that recruitment throughout the 2000s had been relatively weak. Age structures for the years of 2019, 2020 and 2021 showed the population in NSG was dominated by small, young fish that were up to seven years of age, with few older fish. Such age structures contrast with those from the 1990s and 2000s that included many fish greater than 20 years of age and some greater than 30 years old [Fowler et al. 2016]. These data show that the age structures for NSG are severely truncated and that recent recruitment has been low. For SSG, weak year classes in the age structures indicate that rates of migration from NSG have been poor, reflecting low recruitment to the latter region throughout the 2000s. 

The estimates of fishable biomass from the SnapEst model declined year-to-year from 5,350 t in 2005 to 468 t in 2020, the lowest estimated value, and have increased marginally to 543 t in 2022. Model outputs indicate that this decline in fishable biomass relates to poor recruitment throughout the 2000s and 2010s and to increasing harvest fractions, related to the continued exploitation of a depleting stock. The model outputs also show that egg production in 2022 was 2% of that expected for an unfished stock and that average recruitment was 81% lower than the historical mean. 

Overall, several independent datasets demonstrate that the fishable biomass and recruitment for the SG/WC stock are at historically low levels [Drew et al. 2022]. Indicators of low stock levels include: (i) low estimates of commercial catch, effort and CPUE prior to the fishery closure in 2019; (ii) the absence of large, old fish in the population; (iii) lack of evidence for the recruitment of any new strong year classes for almost 20 years; and (iv) ongoing declines in spawning biomass, from the low level in 2013. The decline in biomass of the SG/WC stock has occurred over a number of years and has been apparent at the regional and biological stock levels since 2012 [Fowler et al. 2013]. The primary causes of the decline are poor recruitment since 1999, evident as the lack of strong year classes in annual age structures throughout the 2000s [Fowler et al. 2016, Fowler et al. 2019, Drew et al. 2022], coupled with ongoing fishing of a depleting stock.

The above evidence indicates that the biomass of this stock is likely to be depleted and that recruitment is likely to be impaired. Furthermore, current fishing mortality is constrained by management to a level that should allow the stock to recover from its recruitment impaired state; however, measurable improvements are yet to be detected.

On the basis of the evidence provided above, the Spencer Gulf/West Coast biological stock is classified as a depleted stock.

Western Victoria

Assessment of the stock is based on consideration of catch-per-unit-effort (CPUE), and fishery-independent trawl surveys of pre-recruit (young-of-the-year) abundance in Port Phillip Bay, the main spawning and nursery area for the stock [Hamer et al. 2011]. Although this stock extends throughout the coastal waters of central/western Victoria and south-east South Australia, the main indicator data are derived from the major bay fisheries in Victoria: Port Phillip Bay and Western Port.

Most of the commercial harvest comes from Port Phillip Bay and has dropped considerably since 2010–11, with recent harvests of around, or less than 50 t per year, being among the lowest recorded since 1978 [Bell et al. 2023]. Since 2009–10 harvests by non-Victorian licensed operators from the western stock region have also declined to very low levels due to inter-jurisdictional agreements [Bell et al. 2023]. Commercial net fishing in Port Phillip Bay has now ceased due to buy-outs and long-line effort has reduced substantially in recent years due to a reduction of licences and the introduction of quota management [Bell et al. 2023]. The most recent estimate of recreational landings was 561 t in 2010.

Standardised CPUE of adult Snapper by the Port Phillip Bay commercial long-line fishery and recreational anglers (October to December creel surveys) has decreased since the late 2000s–early 2010s in Port Phillip Bay [Bell et al. 2023]. The decrease in the recreational catch rate in Port Phillip Bay was rapid from 2013 to 2014 but has since stabilised, with slight improvement in 2021–22. The decline in standardised commercial long-line CPUE has not been as rapid as for anglers, likely representing the superior skill and experience of the few remaining commercial longline fishermen [Bell et al. 2023]. Standardised CPUE for recreational anglers in Western Port for the October-December period has followed a similar trend to Port Phillip Bay, though the decline has been greater and has not increased in 2021–22 [Bell et al. 2023]. The decline in abundance of adult Snapper is in agreement with pre-recruit surveys whereby very high recruitment in the early 2000s resulted in very high abundance through until the early 2010s, and reduced recruitment from 2006–17 has seen the biomass of the stock reduce.

Catch rates from January to May provide information on the passage of juvenile and sub-adult cohorts in the fishery and are therefore inherently variable, reflecting the passage of weaker and stronger cohorts through the fishery. Standardised CPUE for the recreational creel surveys in January–May have increased in both Port Phillip Bay and Western Port over the last two years as the very strong 2018 cohort entered the fishery [Bell et al. 2023].

The rapid drop in recreational CPUE from 2013 to 2014 indicates that depletion of strong cohorts has been occurring. Nevertheless, fishery performance remains reasonable for both commercial and recreational fisheries and it was anticipated that the stock would enter a period of lower abundance following the abovementioned eleven years of reduced recruitment. The third highest recruitment event was recorded in 2022 and is predicted to drive further rebuilding of adult biomass and improved fishery performance over the next 5–10 years [Bell et al. 2023]. Length compositions are not showing signs of truncation, and commercial fishing pressure has reduced substantially in recent years due to the Port Phillip Bay buy-outs and reduced targeting by South Australian and Commonwealth operators due to various inter-jurisdictional agreements.

The available evidence indicates that the biomass of this stock is unlikely to be depleted and that recruitment is unlikely to be impaired. Furthermore, the above evidence indicates that the current level of fishing mortality is unlikely to cause the stock to become recruitment impaired.

On the basis of the evidence provided above, the Western Victorian biological stock is classified as a sustainable stock.

Snapper biology [Jackson et al. 2010, Stewart et al. 2010; Wakefield et al. 2015; Fowler et al. 2016; Wakefield et al. 2016; Jackson et al. 2023]

Western Australia - Recreational (Catch). Ryan et al. 2022.

Western Australia – Recreational (Management Methods) In Western Australia, total recreational catch limits (that is, maximum catch limits) have been applied to stocks of Snapper in inner Shark Bay and the West Coast, to aid recovery of stocks.

Queensland – Indigenous (Management Methods). For more information see: https://www.daf.qld.gov.au/business-priorities/fisheries/traditional-fishing

Queensland – Recreational Fishing (Catch). Data are based at the whole of Queensland level and derived from statewide recreational fishing surveys. Where possible, estimates have been converted to weight (tonnes) using best known conversion multipliers. Conversion factors may display regional or temporal variability. In the absence of an adequate conversion factor, data presented as number of fish.

Queensland – Commercial and Charter (Catch). Queensland commercial and charter data has been sourced from the commercial fisheries logbook program. Further information available through the Queensland Fisheries Summary Report https://www.daf.qld.gov.au/business-priorities/fisheries/monitoring-research/data/queensland-fisheries-summary-report

Queensland – Commercial (Management Methods). Recent management changes are available at https://www.daf.qld.gov.au/business-priorities/fisheries/sustainable/legislation and harvest strategy information is available at https://www.daf.qld.gov.au/business-priorities/fisheries/sustainable/harvest-strategy  

New South Wales – Recreational (Catch). Murphy et al. 2022; Stewart 2023.

New South Wales – Indigenous (Management Methods). (https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/fishing/aboriginal-fishing.

Victoria – Indigenous (Management Methods). A person who identifies as Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander is exempt from the need to obtain a Victorian recreational fishing licence, provided they comply with all other rules that apply to recreational fishers, including rules on equipment, catch limits, size limits and restricted areas. Traditional (non-commercial) fishing activities that are carried out by members of a traditional owner group entity under an agreement pursuant to Victoria’s Traditional Owner Settlement Act 2010 are also exempt from the need to hold a recreational fishing licence, subject to any conditions outlined in the agreement. Native title holders are also exempt from the need to obtain a recreational fishing licence under the provisions of the Commonwealth’s Native Title Act 1993.

South Australia – Recreational (Catch). Beckmann et al. 2023.

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